A Researcher-Practitioner Partnership to Eliminate Racial Disparities in School Discipline

Evidence shows Black, Latino, and Native American youth are significantly more likely than their other students to be referred to administration for disciplinary action and receive out-of-school suspension or expulsion.^1-5 Moreover, this type of exclusionary discipline significantly impacts these youths’ trajectories; students who have been suspended or expelled are more likely to be held back a grade, leave school, and become involved in the criminal justice system.^6-8  Given these findings, DPS underwent a major policy overhaul in 2008, with the goal of reducing the use of exclusionary discipline.  The new policy encourages schools to implement proactive and preventive interventions such as restorative approaches to resolving discipline problems. Although initial evidence suggested success in reducing suspensions and expulsions, researchers discovered that racial disparities continue to exist in school discipline outcomes. To address this issue, the Graduate School of Social Work at the University of Denver (DU) partnered with the Division of Student Services of Denver Public Schools (DPS) in fall 2012 to examine racial disparities in suspensions and expulsions. Over the summer of 2013, the partners submitted a proposal to the Institute of Education Science (IES) for funding to support the team’s efforts to generate new knowledge that can inform district policies and practices aimed at reducing racial disparities in exclusionary school discipline.

Research Questions and Methods

To address the aforementioned areas of inquiry, members of the partnership will focus on three major research questions:

• What multilevel risk and protective factors contribute to racial disproportionality in office discipline referrals and exclusionary discipline sanctions?
•  What malleable school-level factors differentiate schools with high and low racial disproportionalities in exclusionary discipline sanctions?
•  Are student academic outcomes related to racial disproportionality in school discipline?

The researchers will primarily rely on secondary data analysis of administrative data and census tract information, including student records, school climate surveys, and school performance framework files. The sample will include all K-12 students enrolled in DPS schools between 2008 and 2014.

Future Goals

The current proposal sought funding to continue an early-stage partnership addressing racial disparities in school discipline and their prevention. In order to achieve buy-in from the varied and numerous stakeholders involved, this partnership must demonstrate that disparate disciplinary action results in disparate outcomes for both the individual student as well as overall student body outcomes. The authors propose capacity building activities to include researcher-practitioner partnership meetings, stakeholder engagement activities, advisory board meetings, and district decision-making activities. As this particular partnership moves forward, it will follow an iterative research-to practice cycle, engaging stakeholders in each stage.

Citation

Anyon, Y., Jenson, J., Altschul, I., McQueen, J., Farrar, J., Greer, E., Simmons, J., & Downing, B. Submitted to the Institute of Educational Sciences. A researcher-practitioner partnership to eliminate racial disparities in school discipline. July 2014-June 2015 (400,000)

For More Information

For a more in-depth look at the IES proposal, including researcher hypotheses and ongoing challenges, contact Dr. Yolanda Anyon.

References

¹ Hannon, L., DeFina, R., & Bruch, S. (in press). The relationship between skin tone and school suspension for African Americans.

² Krezmien, M. P., Leone, P. E., & Achilles, G. M. (2006). Suspension, race, and disability: Analysis of statewide practices and reporting. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 14, 217-226.

³ Payne, A. A., & Welch, K. (2010). Modeling the effects of racial threat on punitive and restorative school discipline practices. Criminology, 48, 1019.

⁴ Skiba, R. J., Horner, R. H., Chung, C.-G., Rausch, M. K., May, S. L., & Tobin, T. (2011). Race is not neutral: A national investigation of African American and latino disproportionality in school discipline. School Psychology Review, 40, 85-107.

⁵ Wallace Jr, J. M., Goodkind, S., Wallace, C. M., & Bachman, J. G. (2008). Racial, ethnic, and gender differences in school discipline among us high school students: 1991-2005. The Negro Educational Review, 59, 47.

⁶ Fabelo, T., Thompson, M. D., Plotkin, M., Carmichael, D., Marchbanks III, M. P., & Booth, E. A. (2011). Breaking schools' rules: A statewide study of how school discpline relates to students' success and juvenile justice involvement. New York: Council of State Governments Justice Center and The Public Policy Research Institute of Texas A&M University.

⁷ Rausch, M. K., Skiba, R. J., & Simmons, A. B. (2004). The academic cost of discipline: The relationship between suspension/expulsion and school achievement. Center for Evaluation and Education Policy, School of Education, Indiana University.

⁸ Skiba, R. J., Simmons, A., Staudinger, L., Rausch, M., Dow, G., & Feggins, R. (2003). Consistent removal: Contributions of school discipline to the school-prison pipeline. Paper presented at the School to Prison Pipeline Conference, Boston, MA.

Positive Youth Development: Oxford Bibliography in Social Work

Drs. Yoli Anyon and Jeffrey Jenson recently authored an Oxford Bibliography in Social Work entry on positive youth development (PYD), a framework for practice with children and youth. PYD suggests that a youth’s feelings of responsibility, connectedness, and positive values, coupled with an emphasis on strengths, can further youths’ ability to live a healthy and productive life. Anyon and Jenson’s bibliography offers a wide range of both practice- and policy- related resources for scholars and students interested PYD. Topics covered include:

• Overview of the principles of PYD
•  Centers and institutions (i.e., academic centers, policy institutes, clearinghouses) focusing on PYD research and linking stakeholders to resources
•  Free manuals and guides for PYD practitioners and educators
• Publications focusing on or including work on PYD
• Federal policies promoting PYD in communities and schools
•  Specific strategies for implementing effective PYD programs
•  Effectiveness of PYD programming in fostering PYD, such as physical, emotional, and moral development
• Challenges in advancing PYD and addressing challenges in future work

Pedagogical Implications

• This bibliography can serve as a resource to educators developing syllabi for courses focused on positive youth development.
• The annotated bibliography is a useful resource to students who are new to PYD.

For More Information

To learn more about Dr. Anyon’s work with PYD, check out her CV.

Citation

Anyon, Y., & Jenson, J. (in press). Positive youth development. In E. Mullin (Ed.). Oxford Bibliographies in Social Work. New York: Oxford University Press.  Available online: http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/obo/page/social-work

School-Based Mental Health Prevention for Asian American Adolescents: Risk Behaviors, Protective Factors, and Service Use

Research has shown that prevention programs addressing multiple risk and protective factors may be highly beneficial in reducing mental health problems in Asian American adolescents.^1-3 However, emerging evidence demonstrates this population tends to underutilize community-based mental health services.⁴ In the present study, authors Anyon, Ong, & Whitaker evaluate a school-based mental health (SBMH) prevention program. Specifically, the authors aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of engaging target populations, paying particular attention to Asian American youth.

Though school-based programming can reduce barriers (e.g., transportation, insurance) to services, research has shown Asian youth are underrepresented in SBMH prevention programs.^5,6 For the present study, the authors relied on a model of ethnic minority youth mental health help-seeking, which posits that youths’ risk and protective factors, as well as their help-seeking paths, are influenced by social, cultural, organizational, and structural contexts and involve multiple persons (e.g., family, peers, teachers).⁷

Methods and Sample

Data was collected between 2008 and 2009 from public high school students taking part in a district-city-county collaborative SBMH initiative. Staff at each initiative site included, at minimum, a coordinator, school nurse, outreach worker, and behavioral health counselor. These staff worked in conjunction with community-based organizations to provide universal services (e.g., health education) school-wide and select services (e.g., support groups) to students demonstrating moderate need. Counseling and case management were offered to students presenting with mental health issues.

The California Healthy Kids Survey (CHKS) was administered to all students at each study site to assess health risk and protective factors.⁸ A 71% response rate resulted in an unweighted sample of 8,466 students. Select characteristics are as follows:

• Race/Ethnicity: 58% Asian, 15% Latino, 9% Black, 6% White, 3% Pacific Islander, 11% multiracial
•  Largest Asian Ethnic Subgroups: 67% Chinese, 7% Cambodian, 4% Filipino, 4% Vietnamese
• Gender: 54% female, 46% male
• Used services: Asian, 34%; White 44%; Multiracial/Other, 52%; Pacific Islander, 53%; Latino, 60%; Black, 63%; All students, 42%

Results

Generally, Asian youth reported lower levels of most risk factors for mental health problems, notably excluding depressive symptoms, in comparison to other racial minority groups. Initial findings indicate self-reported risk factors targeted by the SBMH programs increased youths’ odds of service use; however, this did not hold true for self-reported depressive symptoms among Asian youth. The authors suggest that both the stigma associated with mental health treatment-seeking and the tendency to depend on family and friends for support may be higher for Asian youth.⁹ In examining specific Asian ethnicity subgroups, the authors found that SBMH programs particularly underserve Cambodian and Chinese students.

Implications

The authors suggest that prevention program providers cannot assume that high-risk youth will access services. Given that Asian students, and Cambodian and Chinese students in particular, are underserved in SBMHs, more attention must be paid to culturally responsive interventions. Program suggestions include:

• Relying less on teacher referrals for SBMH services
• School-wide campaigns to normalize help-seeking
• School-based screenings for protective and risk factors

For More Information

For more a more in-depth look at the racial and ethnic disparities in SBMHs, check out the full article now in press in the Asian American Journal of Psychology. For more on school-based programming, be sure to read our previous blog posts featuring Dr. Anyon’s work.

Citation

Anyon, Y., Ong, S.L., & Whitaker, K. (in press). School-based mental health prevention for Asian American adolescents: Risk behaviors, protective factors and service use. Asian American Journal of Psychology.

References

¹ Lee, S., Juon, H., Martinez, G., Hsu, C.E., Robinson, E.S., Bawa, J., & Ma, G.X. (2009). Model minority at risk: Expressed needs of mental health by Asian American young adults. Journal of Community Health, 34, 144–152.

² Costello, D.M., Swendsen, J , Rose, J.S., & Dierker, L.C. (2008). Risk and protective factors associated with trajectories of depressed mood From adolescence to early adulthood. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76(2), 173–183.

³ Zhou, Q., Tao, A., Chen, S.H., Main, A., Lee, E., Ly, J., Hua, M., & Li, X. (2012). Asset and protective factors for Asian American children’s mental health adjustment. Child Development Perspectives, 6, 312-319. doi:

⁴ Abe-Kim, J., Takeuchi, D. T. , Hong, S., Zane, N., Sue, S., Spencer, M. S, & Alegria, M. (2007). Use of mental health-related services among immigrant and U.S.-born Asian Americans: Results from the National Latino and Asian American Study. American Journal of Public Health, 97, 91–98.

⁵ Amaral, G., Geierstanger, S., Soleimanpour, S., & Brindis, C.D. (2011). Mental health characteristics and health-seeking behaviors of adolescent school-based health center users and nonusers. Journal of School Health, 81, 138-145.

⁶ Walker, S.C., Kerns, S.E.U., Lyon, A.R., Bruns, E.J., & Cosgrove, T.J. (2010). Impact of school-based health center use on academic outcomes. Journal of Adolescent Health, 46, 251–257.

⁷ Cauce, A.M., Domenech-Rodriguez, M., Paradise, M., Chochran, B.N., Shea, J.M., Srebnik, D., & Baydar, N. (2002). Cultural and contextual influences in mental health help seeking: A focus on ethnic minority youth. Journal of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, 70, 44-55.

⁸ Hanson, T.L., & Kim, J. (2007). Measuring resilience and youth development: the psychometric properties of the Healthy Kids Survey. (Issues & Answers Report, REL 2007–No. 034). Washington, DC.: Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory West.

⁹ Kuhl, J., Jarkon-Horlick, L., & Morrissey, R. F. (1997). Measuring barriers to help-seeking behavior in adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 26, 637-650.

Help-Seeking in the School Context: Understanding Chinese American Adolescents’ Underutilization of School Health Services

In contrast to the “model minority” stereotype, many Chinese American youth exhibit considerable need for both preventative and intervention services.^1,2 Data specific to Chinese American adolescents is limited, but studies with samples of Asian American adolescents have indicated greater need for mental health services and higher risk for depression, anxiety, self-injury, and suicide than White or Black youth even when controlling for demographics and caregiver characteristics.^2-9 School health programs (SHPs) have been identified as one strategy to overcome barriers like cost and transportation faced by underserved adolescents. In San Francisco, SHPs have been implemented in 15 schools, where Chinese American adolescents make up 45% of students, but only 25% of SHP users.¹⁰ In the present study, authors Anyon, Whitaker, Shield, and Franks address this issue by examining the influence of contextual factors (e.g., referrals, peer dynamics) on Chinese American students’ underutilization of SHPs.

Methods and Sample

Researchers conducted data analysis on the 2007 Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) administered in San Francisco to identify unique factors influencing the help-seeking behavior of Chinese American students. Subsequently, focus groups and interviews were held in Spring 2008 to a) assist in interpreting YRBS findings and b) explore how school contexts influence help-seeking pathways. Students for the focus groups and interviews were recruited from physical education classes in three schools. Students who had previously used SHP services participated in individual interviews instead of focus groups out of concern for privacy and confidentiality.

The survey sample was limited to include 1,700 students who attended schools with a SHP. Grade level (9^th-12^th) and gender (male, female) were both equally distributed. Racial and ethnic identities are as follows:

• Chinese American: 42%
• Latino: 20%
• Other Asian ethnic groups: 15%
• White: 9%
• Black: 7%
• Multiracial: 4%

While the majority of the sample completed the YRBS in English, five percent of participants completed the survey in another language. Sixty percent of the sample reported at least one risky health behavior and 40% of the sample reported accessing SHP at least one time.

Five focus groups (N=39) were conducted with 44 Chinese American students who reported not accessing their SHP. Participants were in 9^th (N=29) and 10^th (N=15) grades. Most participants (N=39) were born in the U.S. with their parents having been born outside of the U.S. At home, participants reported speaking primarily Cantonese (N=16), primarily English (N=13), or both Cantonese and English (N=13). Gender was equally distributed between male and female participants.

Seven interviews (three males, four females) were conducted with Chinese American students who reported accessing their SHP. All grade levels were represented. All participants reported being born in the U.S. with their parents having been born outside of the U.S. At home, participants reported speaking primarily Cantonese (N=2), primarily English (N=1), or both Cantonese and English (N=4).

Results

Data analysis resulted in several themes emerging from the YRBS, focus group, and interview data in three areas: 1) recognition of service need, 2) the decision to seek help, and 3) service selection. Here are several highlights of the findings:

• Chinese American students, compared to peers of other racial and ethnic identities, were significantly less aware of SHP services. Moreover, among participants who had never used SHP services, Chinese American students more often cited not needing services as the reason for non-use.
• After controlling for various factors (language, sex, grade, risk behaviors), Chinese American students (compared to Black, White, and other Asian peers) were significantly more likely to believe SHP is for troublemakers. Focus group and interview data corroborate these findings, with a common perception among Chinese American students being that the “bad kids” are those who need services. Focus group data also indicated that Chinese American students related regular SHP access to “different” students or students with “problems,” a label they did not want for themselves or their friends.
• Interview participants indicated that teacher referrals were helpful in easing resistance to services, particularly in regards to behavioral healthcare. Many of the interviewees reported basing service use on others’ assessment of their needs (i.e., referrals).

Implications

To address the help-seeking barriers identified in the study, Anyon and colleagues make several suggestions for improving SHP use:

• Implement support and empowerment groups for Chinese American youth and SHP staff to build relationships that support voluntary help-seeking from SHPs
• Emphasize universal services (e.g., primary care, recreational activities) to alter student perceptions of SHP use
• Train teachers in somatic and internalizing symptoms that warrant referrals to SHPs

For More Information

The full article is located in the Journal of School Health, Vol. 83. You can learn more about Dr. Anyon and her work on her faculty page and her DU portfolio.

Citation

Anyon, Y., Whitaker, K., Shields, J.P., & Franks, H. (2013). Help-seeking in the school context: Understanding Chinese American adolescents’ underutilization of school health services. Journal of School Health, 83(8), 562-572. doi: 10.1111/josh.12066

References

¹ Choi, Y., & Lahey, B.B. (2006). Testing the model minority stereotype: Youth behaviors across racial and ethnic groups. Social Service Review, 80(3), 419-452. doi: 10.1086/505288

² Lee, S.J., & Rotheram-Borus, M.J. (2009). Beyond the “model minority” stereotype: Trends in health risk behaviors among Asian/Pacific Islander high school students. Journal of School Health, 79(8), 347-354. doi: 10.1111/j.1746-1561.2009.00420.x

³ Bui, K., & Takeuchi, D. (1992). Ethnic minority adolescents and the use of community mental health care services. American Journal of Community Psychology, 20(4), 403-417. doi: 10.1007/BF00937752

⁴ Ho, J., Yeh, M., McCabe, K., & Hough, R.L. (2007). Parental cultural affiliation and youth mental health service use. Journal of Youth and Adolescents, 36(4), 529-542. doi: 10.1007/s10964-006-9114-x

⁵ Garland, A.F., Lau, A.S., Yeh, M., McCabe, K.M., Hough, R.L., & Landsverk, J.A. (2005). Racial and ethnic differences in utilization of mental health services among high-risk youths. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(7), 1336-1336. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.162.7.1336

⁶ Goldston, D.B., Molock, S.D., Whitbeck, L.B., Murakami, J.L., Zayas, L.H., Hall, G.C.N. (2008). Cultural considerations in adolescent suicide prevention and psychosocial treatment. American Psychologist, 63(1), 14-31. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.63.1.14

⁷ McCabe, K., Yeh, M., Hough, R.L., Landsverk, J., Hurlburt, M.S., Culver, S.W., & Reynolds, B. (1999). Racial/ethnic variation across five public sectors of care for youth. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 7(2), 72-82. doi: 10.1177/106342669900700202

⁸ Sen, B. (2004). Adolescent propensity for depressed mood and help seeking: Race and gender differences. The Journal of Mental Health Policy and Economics, 7(3), 133-145.

⁹ Yeh, M., McCabe, K., Hough, R.L., Lau, A., Fakhry, F., & Garland, A. (2005). Why bother with beliefs? Examining relationships between race/ethnicity, parental beliefs about causes of child problems, and mental health service use. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(5), 800-807. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.73.5.800

¹⁰ Simmons, M., David, R., Larsen-Fleming, M., & Combs, N. (2010). A snapshot of youth health and wellness, San Francisco 2009. San Francisco, CA: Adolescent Health Working Group.