A Researcher-Practitioner Partnership to Eliminate Racial Disparities in School Discipline

Evidence shows Black, Latino, and Native American youth are significantly more likely than their other students to be referred to administration for disciplinary action and receive out-of-school suspension or expulsion.^1-5 Moreover, this type of exclusionary discipline significantly impacts these youths’ trajectories; students who have been suspended or expelled are more likely to be held back a grade, leave school, and become involved in the criminal justice system.^6-8  Given these findings, DPS underwent a major policy overhaul in 2008, with the goal of reducing the use of exclusionary discipline.  The new policy encourages schools to implement proactive and preventive interventions such as restorative approaches to resolving discipline problems. Although initial evidence suggested success in reducing suspensions and expulsions, researchers discovered that racial disparities continue to exist in school discipline outcomes. To address this issue, the Graduate School of Social Work at the University of Denver (DU) partnered with the Division of Student Services of Denver Public Schools (DPS) in fall 2012 to examine racial disparities in suspensions and expulsions. Over the summer of 2013, the partners submitted a proposal to the Institute of Education Science (IES) for funding to support the team’s efforts to generate new knowledge that can inform district policies and practices aimed at reducing racial disparities in exclusionary school discipline.

Research Questions and Methods

To address the aforementioned areas of inquiry, members of the partnership will focus on three major research questions:

• What multilevel risk and protective factors contribute to racial disproportionality in office discipline referrals and exclusionary discipline sanctions?
•  What malleable school-level factors differentiate schools with high and low racial disproportionalities in exclusionary discipline sanctions?
•  Are student academic outcomes related to racial disproportionality in school discipline?

The researchers will primarily rely on secondary data analysis of administrative data and census tract information, including student records, school climate surveys, and school performance framework files. The sample will include all K-12 students enrolled in DPS schools between 2008 and 2014.

Future Goals

The current proposal sought funding to continue an early-stage partnership addressing racial disparities in school discipline and their prevention. In order to achieve buy-in from the varied and numerous stakeholders involved, this partnership must demonstrate that disparate disciplinary action results in disparate outcomes for both the individual student as well as overall student body outcomes. The authors propose capacity building activities to include researcher-practitioner partnership meetings, stakeholder engagement activities, advisory board meetings, and district decision-making activities. As this particular partnership moves forward, it will follow an iterative research-to practice cycle, engaging stakeholders in each stage.

Citation

Anyon, Y., Jenson, J., Altschul, I., McQueen, J., Farrar, J., Greer, E., Simmons, J., & Downing, B. Submitted to the Institute of Educational Sciences. A researcher-practitioner partnership to eliminate racial disparities in school discipline. July 2014-June 2015 (400,000)

For More Information

For a more in-depth look at the IES proposal, including researcher hypotheses and ongoing challenges, contact Dr. Yolanda Anyon.

References

¹ Hannon, L., DeFina, R., & Bruch, S. (in press). The relationship between skin tone and school suspension for African Americans.

² Krezmien, M. P., Leone, P. E., & Achilles, G. M. (2006). Suspension, race, and disability: Analysis of statewide practices and reporting. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 14, 217-226.

³ Payne, A. A., & Welch, K. (2010). Modeling the effects of racial threat on punitive and restorative school discipline practices. Criminology, 48, 1019.

⁴ Skiba, R. J., Horner, R. H., Chung, C.-G., Rausch, M. K., May, S. L., & Tobin, T. (2011). Race is not neutral: A national investigation of African American and latino disproportionality in school discipline. School Psychology Review, 40, 85-107.

⁵ Wallace Jr, J. M., Goodkind, S., Wallace, C. M., & Bachman, J. G. (2008). Racial, ethnic, and gender differences in school discipline among us high school students: 1991-2005. The Negro Educational Review, 59, 47.

⁶ Fabelo, T., Thompson, M. D., Plotkin, M., Carmichael, D., Marchbanks III, M. P., & Booth, E. A. (2011). Breaking schools' rules: A statewide study of how school discpline relates to students' success and juvenile justice involvement. New York: Council of State Governments Justice Center and The Public Policy Research Institute of Texas A&M University.

⁷ Rausch, M. K., Skiba, R. J., & Simmons, A. B. (2004). The academic cost of discipline: The relationship between suspension/expulsion and school achievement. Center for Evaluation and Education Policy, School of Education, Indiana University.

⁸ Skiba, R. J., Simmons, A., Staudinger, L., Rausch, M., Dow, G., & Feggins, R. (2003). Consistent removal: Contributions of school discipline to the school-prison pipeline. Paper presented at the School to Prison Pipeline Conference, Boston, MA.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Correlates of Victimization Classes among Homeless Youth

Background

Literature demonstrates that street victimization is a common occurrence among homeless youth.¹ Street victimization is correlated with poorer mental health, including substance abuse,^2,3 depressive symptoms,³ and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).⁴ Despite much research on street youth victimization, few studies have examined victimization classes and how those classes differ by type and frequency of victimization. In two separate studies, authors Bender, Thompson, Ferguson, and Langenderfer relied on latent class analysis to determine subgroups of homeless youth based on the youths’ self-reported victimization experiences. The authors then ran analyses to determine which of several variables predict subgroup membership. Study One focused on substance abuse, whereas Study Two focused on mental health.

The Sample

Purposive sampling between March 2010 and July 2011 resulted in a sample of 601 street youth, each served by a homeless youth agency in Los Angeles (n=200), Austin (n=200), or Denver (n=201). The three eligibility criteria were that the youth had to 1) be 18 to 24 years old, 2) have spent at least two weeks away from home prior to the interview, and 3) provide written informed consent. Researchers conducted quantitative retrospective interviews with the youth to assess demographics, victimization experiences, substance use symptoms, and mental health symptoms. Researchers assessed victimization experiences using a revised version of the Traumatic Life Events Questionnaire,⁵ retaining items only if they were relevant to homeless youth. Substance use and mental health variables were assessed by the Mini International Neuropsychiatry Interview (MINI).⁶ Specifically, Study One examined substance abuse and substance dependence correlates of victimization class while Study Two examined depression and PTSD correlates.

Demographics for the total sample are as follows:

• Age: M=20.5 years (SD=1.6)
• Gender: 64% male, 36% female
• Race/Ethnicity: 40% White, 25% Black, 18% Latino, 17% Other
• Primary living arrangement: 50% homeless, 50% temporarily housed
• Met diagnostic criteria for:
• Alcohol Addiction: 49.8%
• Drug Addiction: 59.7%
• Substance Abuse: 36.6.%
• Substance Dependence: 48.5%
• Depression: 31%
• PTSD: 23%
• Number of moves: M=3.5 (SD=3.7)
• Months homeless: M=32.4 (SD=31) = 2.7 years

The Results

Identifying Victimization Classes

In Study One, researchers identified victimization classes using exploratory latent class analysis, grouping youth based on type and frequency of victimization. Researchers ran multiple models, from one to six classes, and used best-fit indices and their abilities to describe distinct patterns in classes to decide on a three-class model: low-victimization, high victimization, and witness classes.

Among youth in the low-victimization class (n=215, 36%) more than 85% never experienced robbery, experienced physical or sexual assault by a stranger, experienced threat of bodily harm, witnessed an assault, or personally overdosed on drugs. Typically, youth in this class experienced lower rates of all types of victimization than both the high-victimization and witness classes.

The high-victimization class (n=136, 23%) reported high rates of both indirect (e.g., witnessing a severe assault) and direct (e.g., physical assault by a stranger) victimization. This class also reported experiencing victimization types rarely reported by either the low-victimization or witness classes, such as physical or sexual assault by an intimate partner and personally overdosing on drugs.

The witness class (n=250, 42%) reported high rates of indirect victimization, such as witnessing severe assault, witnessing a drug overdose, or experiencing the sudden death of a close friend or loved one. Typically, these indirect forms of victimization were experienced only once.

Study One: Substance Abuse

Results of a first multinomial regression model indicate that, compared to low-victims, witnesses are approximately twice as likely to meet criteria for both substance abuse and dependence. Moreover, both substance abuse and substance dependence increased the odds of being classified as a high-victim versus a low-victim. Results of a second multinomial regression model indicate that although alcohol and drug addiction both increase the risk of being classified as a witness or high-victim as opposed to a low-victim, the odds ratios were higher for alcohol than for drugs.

Study Two: Mental Health

Again using multinomial regression, results indicate that youth in the high-victimization and witness classes were nearly twice as likely to experience depression symptoms and nearly three times as likely to experience PTSD compared to youth in the low-victimization class. Researchers found no significant differences in mental health risks between high-victims and witnesses.

The Implications

Street youth classified as witnesses or high-victims demonstrated higher rates of substance abuse, substance dependence, depression, and PTSD than low-victims. Given the distinct experiences of youth in the three classes, it is important that providers screening for victimization among homeless youth assess not only types of victimization, but potential consequences as well, such as substance abuse and mental health problems. Moreover, prevention efforts targeting homeless youth should include victimization prevention education.

For More Information

For more details on how latent classes were determined; how time homeless, primary living situation, and transience impact classification; and expanded implications, refer to the full articles in Child Abuse & Neglect and Journal of Adolescence. Click the links below to learn more about the authors’ work.

Dr. Kimberly Bender

Lisa Langenderfer-Magruder

Citations

Bender, K., Ferguson, K., Thompson, S., & Langenderfer, L. (in press). Mental health correlates of victimization classes among homeless youth. Child Abuse & Neglect.

Bender, K., Thompson, S.J., Ferguson, K., & Langenderfer, L. (2014). Substance use predictors of victimization profiles among homeless youth: A latent class analysis. Journal of Adolescence, 37(2), 155-164. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.11.007

References

1 Stewart, A.J., Steiman, M., Cauce, A.M., Cochran, B.N., Whitbeck, L.B., & Hoyt, D.R. (2004). Victimization and posttraumatic stress disorder among homeless adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43(3), 325-331.

2 Hoyt, D.R., Ryan, K.D., & Cauce, A.M. (1999). Personal victimization in a high-risk environment: Homeless and runaway adolescents. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 36(4), 371-392

3 Whitbeck, L.B., Hoyt, D.R., & Bao, W. (2000). Depressive symptoms and co-occurring depressive symptoms, substance abuse, and conduct problems among runaway and homeless adolescents. Child Development, 71(3), 721-732.

4 Whitbeck, L.B., Hoyt, D.R., Johnson, K.D., & Chen, X. (2007). Victimization and posttraumatic stress disorder among runaway and homeless adolescents. Violence and Victims, 22(6), 721-734.

5 Kubany, E. S., Leisen, M. B., Kaplan, A. S., Watson, S. B., Haynes, S. N., Owens, J. A., Burns, K. (2000). Development and preliminary validation of a brief broad-spectrum measure of trauma exposure: The Traumatic Life Events Questionnaire. Psychological Assessment, 12(2), 210-224. doi: 10.1037/1040-3590.12.2.210

6 Sheehan, D., Lecrubier, Y., Sheehan, K., Amorim, P., Janavs, J., Weiller, E., Hergueta, T., Baker, R., & Dunbar, G. (1998). The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI): The development and validation of a structured diagnostic psychiatric interview for DSM-IV and ICD-10. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 59, 22-33.

Positive Youth Development: Oxford Bibliography in Social Work

Drs. Yoli Anyon and Jeffrey Jenson recently authored an Oxford Bibliography in Social Work entry on positive youth development (PYD), a framework for practice with children and youth. PYD suggests that a youth’s feelings of responsibility, connectedness, and positive values, coupled with an emphasis on strengths, can further youths’ ability to live a healthy and productive life. Anyon and Jenson’s bibliography offers a wide range of both practice- and policy- related resources for scholars and students interested PYD. Topics covered include:

• Overview of the principles of PYD
•  Centers and institutions (i.e., academic centers, policy institutes, clearinghouses) focusing on PYD research and linking stakeholders to resources
•  Free manuals and guides for PYD practitioners and educators
• Publications focusing on or including work on PYD
• Federal policies promoting PYD in communities and schools
•  Specific strategies for implementing effective PYD programs
•  Effectiveness of PYD programming in fostering PYD, such as physical, emotional, and moral development
• Challenges in advancing PYD and addressing challenges in future work

Pedagogical Implications

• This bibliography can serve as a resource to educators developing syllabi for courses focused on positive youth development.
• The annotated bibliography is a useful resource to students who are new to PYD.

For More Information

To learn more about Dr. Anyon’s work with PYD, check out her CV.

Citation

Anyon, Y., & Jenson, J. (in press). Positive youth development. In E. Mullin (Ed.). Oxford Bibliographies in Social Work. New York: Oxford University Press.  Available online: http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/obo/page/social-work